1. Introduction -- Aim and structure of the book -- Key research concepts, methods, and goals -- 2. Overview -- The critical role of environmental resources -- Sources of environmental scarcity -- The importance of context -- Pivotal countries -- Ingenuity and adaptation -- 3. Two centuries of debate -- Neo-Malthusians versus economic optimists -- The distributionist alternative -- Thresholds, interdependence, and interactivity -- Social friction and adaptive failure -- Appendix. How to read a systems diagram -- 4. Environmental scarcity -- Three sources of scarcity -- Factors producing scarcity -- The physical trends of global change -- 5. Interactions and social effects -- Interactions -- Social effects -- Appendix. The causal role of environmental scarcity -- 6. Ingenuity and adaptation -- The nature and role of ingenuity -- Some factors increasing the requirement for ingenuity -- Some factors limiting the supply of ingenuity -- Conclusions -- Appendix. Can poor countries attain endogenous growth? -- 7. Violence -- Types of violent conflict -- Four further cases -- Urban growth and violence -- Implications for international security -- Appendix. Hypothesis testing and case selection -- 8. Conclusions -- Notes -- General readings on environmental security -- Index.